National Rural Infrastructure Development Agency

G20 India 2023 National Flag Beti Bachao Beti Padhao

Research Areas

Impact Assessment - Key Findings

Highlights

Improved road connectivity has lead to a better transport system thereby increasing the accessibility to the markets. This impact for agricultural products has been huge in the states of West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Assam etc. The usage of chemical fertilizers, seeds and pesticides has increased in Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and West Bengal. Considerable change in cropping pattern was observed in the states of Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Tamil Nadu. Beneficiaries in states of Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh reported an increase in the families rearing goats/sheep for commercial purpose.

It can be said that there has been an increased employment opportunity in all the states. There has been an increase in on-farm employment opportunities due to shift from grains to cash crops and also multiple cropping particularly in the state of Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Mizoram. Non-farm opportunities like opening of shops, small business, cottage industries has increased in the states of Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.

There has not been much impact in the industrial sector as it's too early to measure change in the industries. However, the impact on the industries was in terms of easy access to raw materials and improved accessibility to market the finished products. This has led to economies of scale particularly in the state of Assam and Mizoram. Beneficiaries reported that the pottery, brick making industry of Orissa was benefited from the PMGSY roads. Perceived benefit was also reported in the cottage industries of Tamil Nadu and Handloom industry of West Bengal.

There has been an overall improvement in the health sector in the states of West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. This has been due to improved access to the health facilities like PHC's, sub-centres and district hospitals. Beneficiaries in the states of Mizoram, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal reported increased antenatal and postnatal care thereby decreasing the obstetrics emergencies. All the above mentioned states also reported increased institutional deliveries. Beneficiaries reported decrease in infant and child mortality especially in the states of Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.

There has been an improvement in the accessibility to education facilities resulting in increased school enrolment and school attendance in all the states. Beneficiaries reported increase in the number of girls going to schools in the states of Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

It can be said that there has been an overall improvement in the social aspects of rural life in all the states under study. There has been an increase in the visits of grass root level functionaries like health workers/AMN, VLWs and VAWs in the states of Orissa, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal. Beneficiaries also mentioned that with better connectivity there has been an improvement in accessibility to the banks, post and telegraph services in all the states.

There has been an overall improvement in transportation in all the states under study. Beneficiaries in all the states mentioned that there has been an increase in ownership of bicycles, two wheelers especially in the states of Assam, Rajasthan, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu. Beneficiaries also mentioned that there has been an improvement in the public as well as the private transport system in all the states under study.

Beneficiaries in all the states mentioned that a trend towards urbanization has set in the villages post PMGSY road construction period. The states of Mizoram, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal reported conversion of kuchcha houses to pucca houses. Beneficiaries in all the states mentioned increased land prices adjacent to the PMGSY roads thereby increasing the sale of land for commercial purposes.

Quality of life has improved due to increase in household income, better access to health facilities, increased opportunity for schooling, increased communication and trends towards urban life style.

Introduction

The impact of PMGSY roads was assessed on various socio-economic parameters of the life of people living in the unconnected habitations in the states of Assam, Himachal Pradesh Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Benga most l. In each state three districts were selected. The key findings that have emerged through the study are highlighted briefly in this chapter.

Impact on Agriculture

The construction of PMGSY roads has led to certain interrelated changes of varying magnitude in the agricultural and allied sector, which has economically benefited the villagers. Improved road connectivity has led to a better transport system thereby increasing the accessibility to the markets. This has resulted in better trade and increased profit. The easy linkage with the market has also affected the cropping pattern in most states as cultivators have shifted from grains to cash crops. The PMGSY roads have good impact on the agricultural infrastructure as habitations are now using motorized equipments for cultivation leading to a more efficient, time saving and profitable process of cultivation.

Assam

  • Provision of rural roads have generated a lot of benefits on the agricultural economy in terms of providing easy and faster access during all seasons to the markets, availability of quality inputs and increase in diversity to more cash crops.
  • An increase in the usage of chemical fertilizers, improved seeds and pesticides was observed.
  • The traditional cropping techniques and cropping profiles are replaced with better options. Farmers have reported change in their cropping patterns and have shifted to more cash crops. Cropping intensity has also been improved.
  • A technological change in the agricultural activities in terms of increased use of motorized vehicles and equipments for agricultural purposes was also observed.
  • Due to lack of other support infrastructure like veterinary centers, availability of finances and potential consumption markets which are essential to develop such activities, there has been a very minimal improvement in the production levels of dairy and poultry in all the villages.
  • There has been a substantial positive impact on the prices of the agricultural produces of the farmers of the benefited villages. 18% of the farmers reported increase in prices for their produces. It was found that increased availability of public and private transport has also reduced the cost of transportation drastically and has resulted in increased savings and profits to the farmers' community.

Himachal Pradesh

  • The PMGSY has impacted agriculture and allied activities in a very positive way.
  • Increase in awareness, availability and accessibility of fertilizers, seeds, pesticides, was observed.
  • Increase in agricultural production has taken place due to better availability of inputs.
  • Increase in access of the agriculture and horticulture markets and dairy production
  • Due to the easy access to the markets, saving of travel time and reduction in cost of transportation of goods there has been a significant change in the cropping pattern since most of the people are also resorting to horticulture and vegetable production.
  • There has been some increase in tractors and agriculture vehicles and motorized implements in agriculture, which saves time and labour resulting in lower cost of production. Further the farmers have expanded the cultivable land for horticulture production.
  • There does not seem to be an immediate impact on the change in multiple cropping, poultry production, etc. However, they may accrue in the long term by increased agriculture extension and interventions from the KVKs, agriculture universities and the agriculture department.
  • Agriculture produces are now easily transported to the destination/market and farmers are able to fetch a better price. Prior to the construction, agriculture/ horticulture produce could not be transported in one-go, and at times problem arose in transporting perishable produce.

Madhya Pradesh

  • Lack of adequate water seems to be the major hindrance in effecting a change in cropping pattern. The road by itself cannot be expected to influence cropping unless other essential inputs like water and seeds for the crops are made available. However, in the districts of Umaria, Dhar and Datia, which are relatively backward, there has been a perceptible shift in cultivation from traditional crops to vegetables and other cash crops.
  • Further, individual milk producers have found increased access to shops and dairies in the vicinity because of the PMGSY roads and they have apparently profited from the road.

Mizoram

  • Improved connectivity through all weather roads have generated a lot of benefits on the agricultural economy in terms of providing easy and faster access during all seasons to the markets, availability of quality inputs and increase in diversity to more cash crops.
  • Cultivators have been able to produce more agricultural product by way of generated incentives for marketing their produce at low transportation cost and increased use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and improved seeds at cheaper rate. Thus the productivity of agriculture which is a dominant sector of the state's economy is significantly increased.
  • The traditional cropping techniques and cropping profiles have been replaced with better options. About 62% of the respondents have reported to have changed their cropping patterns. The villages are producing ginger and potatoes on a very large scale now.
  • Due to lack of other support infrastructure like veterinary centers, availability of finances and potential consumption markets which are essential to develop such activities, there has been a very minimal improvement in the production levels of dairy and poultry sectors in all the villages.
  • There has been a substantial positive impact on the prices of the agricultural produces of the farmers of the benefited villages.
  • Increased availability of public and private transport has also reduced the cost of transportation drastically and has resulted into increased savings and profits for the farmers' community.

Orissa

Rajasthan

Agriculture and allied sector Assam Himachal Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Mizoram Orissa Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal
Increased accessibility to markets for agricultural products ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Increase in motorized agricultural vehicles and equipments ü ü - - - - ü - ü
Increased use of chemical, fertilizers, seeds and pesticides ü ü ü ü ü ü ü - ü
Change in cropping pattern from food grains to cash crops ü Y ü ü - Y ü - ü
Increase in dairy/ poultry production/ rearing of sheep/ goats for commercial purpose ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü

Table based on perception of respondents
(ü) Perceived benefit (Y) No perceived change (-) No data available

Imapct on Employment Generation

After the construction of PMGSY roads an improvement in the employment situation in terms of more job opportunities, more avenues for self-employment, etc. were observed. On farm employment increased in states where there has been a shift from cultivation of grains to cash crops. Besides, expansion of local industries also generated employment opportunities. The nature of employment opportunities generated in the post road phase however varied from state to state.

Assam

Himachal Pradesh

Madhya Pradesh

Mizoram

Orissa

Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

Summing up, it can be said that there has been an increased employment opportunity in all the states. There has been an increase in on-farm employment opportunities due to shift from grains to cash crops and also multiple cropping particularly in the state of Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Mizoram. Non-farm opportunities like opening of shops, small business, cottage industries has increased in the states of Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.

Table 3.2 Impact of construction/upgradation of roads in the employment sector in the selected states

  Assam Himachal Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Mizoram Orissa Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal
Increase in on-farm employment opportunities due to increase in cropping intensity ü ü ü ü ü ü ü Y ü
Increase in employment opportunities outside the village due to greater mobility and accessibility of nearby towns Y ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü

Table based on perception of respondents
(ü) Perceived benefit
(Y) No perceived change

Impact on Industry

The changes brought about by PMGSY roads on the industrial sector has been in observed with regards to accessibility of markets, easily availability of raw materials, availability of commercial vehicles to transport bulk product to the markets, saving of travel time resulting in increased savings and profit.

Assam

Himachal Pradesh

Madhya Pradesh

Mizoram

Orissa

Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

Summing up, there has not been much impact in the industrial sector as it's too early to measure change in the industries. However, the impact on the industries was in terms of easy access to raw materials and improved accessibility to market the finished products. This has led to economies of scale particularly in the state of Assam and Mizoram. Beneficiaries reported that the pottery, brick making industry of Orissa was benefited from the PMGSY roads. Perceived benefit was also reported in the cottage industries of Tamil Nadu and Handloom industry of West Bengal.

Table 3.3 Impact of construction/upgradation of roads in the industrial sector in the selected states

  Assam Himachal Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Mizoram Orissa Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal
Improvement in access to market for finished products ü Y ü Y ü ü ü - ü
Changes in technology and designs - Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Changes in employment patterns as a result - Y Y Y Y Y - Y Y

Table based on perception of respondents
(ü) Perceived benefit
(Y) No perceived change
(-) No data available

Impact on Health

Health was an important area where the impact of PMGSY roads was visible. Positive impact was observed with regard to increased accessibility to preventive and curative health care facilities; better management of infectious diseases and emergencies due to availability faster access to health facilities; increase in frequency of visits by health workers. All these factors have also resulted in awareness regarding and availability of better antenatal and post natal care and reduction in neonatal mortality.

Assam

Himachal Pradesh

Madhya Pradesh

Mizoram

Orissa

Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

Summing up, there has been an overall improvement in the health sector in the states of West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. The primary reason for the improvement was improved access to the health facilities like PHC's, sub-centres and district hospitals. Beneficiaries in the states of Mizoram, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal reported increased antenatal and post natal care thereby decreasing the obstetrics emergencies. All the above mentioned states also reported increased institutional deliveries. Beneficiaries reported decrease in infant and child mortality especially in the states of Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.

Table 3.4 Impact of construction/upgradation of roads in the health sector in the selected states

  Assam Himachal Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Mizoram Orissa Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal
Improved access to PHCs, sub centres and district hospital ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Increase in number of visits of health workers ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Greater availability of vehicles or mode of transport to hospitals ü ü ü ü ü - ü ü ü
Decrease in incidences of major disease/ illness like malaria, diarrhoea etc - ü ü - - - ü - ü
Increase in the number of institutional delivery - - - - ü - ü ü ü
Increase in child immunization - ü ü - ü - ü ü ü
Decrease in infant mortality - ü ü - ü - ü ü ü

Table based on perception of respondents
(ü) Perceived benefit
(-) No data available

Impact on Education Sector

A critical indicator of the overall improvement in the lives of the beneficiaries is literacy level and education. The study reflects that connectivity of the villages with the road network has resulted in several improvements in education sector of the rural areas. The most noteworthy impact has been in terms of regular attendance through out the year; change in attitude of parents of girls; increase in number of girls going to school; and inclination to send boys and girls for higher studies and college education.

Assam

Himachal Pradesh

Madhya Pradesh

Mizoram

Orissa

Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

Summing up, there has been an improvement in the accessibility to education facilities resulting in increased school enrolment and school attendance in all the states. Beneficiaries reported increase in girls going to schools in the states of Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

Table 3.5 Impact of construction/upgradation of roads in the education sector in the selected states

  Assam Himachal Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Mizoram Orissa Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal
Increase in the number of boys going to schools for middle and high school education ü ü ü - ü ü ü ü ü
Increase in the number of girls going to school for middle and high school education ü ü ü ü ü Y ü ü ü
Increase in the availability and number of teachers in school - ü - - - ü - - ü

Table based on perception of respondents
(ü) Perceived benefit
(Y) No perceived change
(-) No data available

Impact of Social Aspects

Establishment of road connectivity is bound to have a social impact on the beneficiaries. The impact of the PMGSY roads was reported with regard to increase in frequency of visits by Government official, which has resulted in better implementation of various Government schemes. There has been considerable improvement in communication, post and telegraph services and access to banks. Better accessibility to police services has ensured an improved law and order situation. Besides, the social network of the villagers has widened.

Assam

Himachal Pradesh

Madhya Pradesh

Mizoram

Orissa

Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu

Impact Assessment - Key Findings

Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

Summing up, it can be said that there has been an overall improvement in the social aspects of rural life in all the states under study. There has been an increase in the visits of grass root level functionaries like health workers/AMN, VLWs and VAWs in the states of Orissa, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal. Beneficiaries also mentioned that with better connectivity there has been an improvement in accessibility to the banks, post and telegraph in all the states.

Table 3.6 Impact of construction/upgradation of roads on the social aspects in the selected states

  Assam Himachal Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Mizoram Orissa Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal
Increased frequency of visits of Govt. functionaries ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Improved post and telegraph services and better accessibility to banks ü ü - ü ü ü ü - ü
Improved police patrols around the village ü ü ü ü ü - ü ü ü
Marriage alliance with far-off habitations - ü ü - - ü ü ü ü

Table based on perception of respondents
(ü) Perceived benefit
(-) No data available

Impact on Transport Facilities

The study focused on the impact made by constructed PMGSY roads in terms of improvement in public bus service; increase in taxis and other commercial vehicles and in ownership of cars/ motor cycles/ scooters; changes in non-motorised transport.

Since the PMGSY has provided connectivity to all unconnected habitations in the rural areas, it has had a direct impact on the mobility of the habitations and materials from/to the villages and thus on the development of the village economy.

Assam

Himachal Pradesh

Madhya Pradesh

  • Due to the availability of transport to the village, the transportation costs of the fertilizers have been reduced thereby bringing down the cost of the fertilizers in the villages. Use of chemical fertilizers and use of HYV seeds have increased considerably in the post PMGSY road period.
  • There has been increase in the ownership and use of farm implements by the people.
  • The farmers have got better access to wholesale market and they are getting higher price for their products, which they were selling at throwaway price to the traders from the village itself before construction of the road.
  • There has been substantial increase in the dairy and poultry production in the villages, which are located in close proximity to the newly constructed roads and the farmers are fetching a better price.

    Tamil Nadu

    Uttar Pradesh

    West Bengal

    Thus, summing up, improved road connectivity has lead to a better transport system thereby increasing the accessibility to the markets. The impact of the accessibility to market the agricultural products has been huge in the states of West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Assam etc. The usage of chemical fertilizers, seeds and pesticides has increased in Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and West Bengal. Considerable change in cropping pattern was observed in the states of Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Tamil Nadu. Beneficiaries in states of Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh reported an increase in the families rearing goats/sheep for commercial purpose.

    Table 3.1 Impact of construction/upgradation of roads in the agriculture and allied sector in the selected states

    • Agriculture and livestock rearing is an important economic activity in the habitations covered with almost every-household having cattle.
    • Due to the diverse geography of the state there is variation in land holding pattern and availability / non-availability of irrigation facility giving rise to differential agricultural production. Thus, district wise impact on agricultural sector has not been uniform.
    • Findings reveal that there has been a substantial increase in the growth of agricultural output due to increased use of fertilizers and access to Government schemes.
    • District Ajmer reflects a sterile picture where bulk of the land is either infertile or do not have irrigation facilities.
    • District Jaisalmer faces water scarcity and hence there has been only a slight increase in agricultural production.
    • In District Alwar, land holding is less but agricultural productivity graph has been accelerated. The overall picture remains that the farmers at present are able to yield a better price, as the harvested produce and perishable crops can now easily reach the market.
    • Since livestock, supplements the agricultural activity and provides livelihood and income to the people, more and more villagers are taking an initiative in dairy-business as an additional source of income, which was not possible earlier.
      • Irrigation through bore-wells has facilitated achieving multiple cropping.
      • Cropping pattern has changed with more emphasis on cash crops since access to markets has become easy.
      • The cultivators indicated increased use of chemical fertilisers, improved seeds and pesticides. This has resulted in substantial growth in agriculture produce because of which there has been increase in household income.
      • Use of tractors and other motorized farm implements by farmers has resulted in faster and better cultivation in terms of multiple cropping. Some farmers in the habitations are giving on rental basis to others in the village.
      • Due to easier access to town markets, the majorities of the cultivators are no longer relying on the middleman for sale of produce and directly go the market.
      • Better prices for farm produce by selling them in the town markets.
      • Increase in dairy and poultry production owing to easy access to markets.
      • The overall direct impact of PMGSY on agricultural sector is low. However, it has its impact on the development of agricultural infrastructures, which in the long run certainly helps in the development of agriculture. For example, there has been an increase in market accessibility and agriculture machinery, both of which are catalysts to agricultural dynamics.
      • Land use pattern along the road is agricultural but there have been situations where additional constructions like small shops or even residential have been noticed. Commercial activities are developing along the completed stretches; mechanisms for development control do not exist at the moment.
      • There has been an increase in the dairy production and its market has been widened.
      • In all the districts, improved rural connectivity has brought about significant changes, practically in all the dimensions of agriculture sector.
      • Maximum impact was on mobility of beneficiaries, thereby strengthening forward and backward linkages with the market.
      • Easy availability of commercial transportation and reduction in transportation cost resulted in increased volume of goods being carried to the markets.
      • Increased accessibility to markets has made cultivators less dependent on the middleman for sale of agricultural produce. Cultivators are getting higher price by selling their produce directly at the markets.
      • Improved linkages with the markets and reduction in transportation cost have led to an increase in accessibility and use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
      • Changes in cropping pattern were also observed in some habitations from food grains to cash crops.
      • Due to overall increase of motorized agricultural vehicles, like, tractors and threshing machines, some habitations bought or rented tractors for the very first time after road connectivity was established. Use of tractors has been cost effective as well as time saving too. This has also increased the agricultural productivity.
      • Poultry production, for commercial dairy purpose has increased due to better accessibility to markets. In some habitations, poultry industry was started only after road connectivity was established
      • The road connectivity directly or indirectly, has increased the income level of the cultivators to some extent.
    • Significant relationship is visible between road infrastructure development and increase in employment opportunities in various sectors.
    • Increased cultivated land and multiple crops have significantly improved the employment scenario in the villages.
    • In other sectors like rural and agro industries, Government funded schemes and self-employment in terms of setting up of small enterprises also increased job opportunities.
    • It was observed that despite greater mobility, very little impact was visible on the increase in availability of jobs outside the villages.
    • Increase in the overall employment opportunities in the non-farm category.
    • Due to diversification of agriculture into vegetable growing or horticulture activities the employment of on-farm activities has increase
    • Better remunerations available for off farm activities. On farm employment gives low wage, as there is easy availability of low cost labour due to access to labour from outside the state like form Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, etc.
    • Employment is also being generated because of the diversification from agriculture to other economic activities like opening of shops, small businesses, etc.
    • Change in the pattern of employment in terms of increase in opportunities outside the villages due to greater mobility, easy access to transportation, reduction in time and cost of travel.
    • Many cottage-based industries like juice making, pickle making have started in the village, giving rise to more employment opportunities.
    • Another source of employment has been the small shops, dhabas, hotels that have cropped up on or around the roads.
    • One major impact is seen on dairy business as most of the villagers are now involved in it
    • With ample employment opportunities household income has definitely taken an upward swing.
    • Shift in cultivation particularly in Umaria, Dhar and Datia in favour of cash crops and vegetables. Since, these require relatively more intensive cultivation, on-farm labour engagement has increased.
    • More people are now going to nearby towns and other villages for odd jobs as well as selling woods, vegetables, and locally made items.
    • A few relatively better off villagers have started repair shops, small grocery shops etc. and in the process additional employment opportunities have come up.
    • Increased cultivated land and multiple crops have significantly improved the employment scenario in the villages.
    • Apart from the agriculture sector, the other sectors like rural and agro industries, govt. funded schemes and self-employment in terms of setting up of small enterprises also provided for a lot of increase in job opportunities.
    • Benefited inhabitants of the roads constructed in Aizawl district have been significantly benefited by the improved access to the employment opportunities outside the villages due to greater mobility
    • There has been substantial increase in the employment opportunities in both the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors in the villages located close to the roads constructed under PMGSY.
    • With the advent of PMGSY project, the employment opportunities have gown manifold.
    • Overall there has been
      More economic security through new business activities at village level
      Creation of additional man days in farming activities due to additional crops being cultivated
      Increase in employment opportunity outside the village.
    • As with the agricultural sector the change in employment opportunities has not been uniform. There has not been much change in the employment sector in the district of Jaisalmer while in the district of Alwar there has been a sharp-rise in employment opportunities due to greater and easier accessibility to the industrial township. District Ajmer appears to be some where in between.
    • On-farm employment opportunities increased due to the shift to cash crop and multiple cropping.
    • Off-farm employment opportunities also increased owing to better transportation facilities.
    • Wages increased as a result of extra man-hours available owing to faster movement.
    • An improvement in wage rate of labourer was observed as they could travel to the main areas for work where there were high wage rates per day
    • There is no perceptible impact on employment; only during road construction period some additional employment was generated. However, increase in employment opportunity outside villages has increased because of accessibility and connectivity. People have reported that they find it easier to travel seeking work and there is greater job continuity.
    • Up gradation/construction of the roads have been beneficial for petty traders and shopkeepers. The PMGSY roads have generated income opportunities for villagers who have put up a number of stalls and kiosks on the side of the road. Cultivators also have found an opportunity for selling vegetables on the side of the road.
    • There was an increase in employment in the local handloom industry as the volume of goods being sold at the market has increased due to road connectivity.
    • Off farm employment opportunities have increased owing to improved transportation system and accessibility of nearby towns.
    • The impact on the industry in terms of better access for raw material has been very significant in Barpeta and Morigaon District.
    • The production has improved a lot and because of working on better economies of scale, the profits have risen.
    • Construction of all weather roads has brought a very significant impact on the accessibility of markets for the rural industries' products.
    • However, the much expected change in the number of industries from pre-benefit to post-benefit period has not happened.
    • In this sector, there was an improvement in the number of agro and village industries leading to increased employment in the area.
    • Nothing significant has come out in terms of impact on industry in any of the surveyed districts.
    • It is somewhat early to expect growth of industries in villages/ habitations covered by PMGSY roads.
    • However, the roads have facilitated the induction of buses and vehicles which in turn has encouraged the setting up of small shops / establishments by relatively better off villagers who are located near the road.
    • In the study areas of Aizawl and Champhai districts very less industrial activity and a very few number of small units were present and the impact of the roads on industry has been minimal due to a very scanty presence of industries; however some benefit was reported by people involved in jaggery production.
    • Public confidence needs to be built in about the maintenance of the road infrastructure in the longer terms, which will allow the rural people to take such long term investment decisions and will maximize the positive impact of the roads.
    • In the study villages located adjacent to the roads constructed under PMGSY, only three types of small scale industries like bidi making, pottery and brick making were found.
    • The construction of roads had no impact except for the brick making units. Due to the improvement in the road, the cost of transportation of earth per trip has gone down from Rs.600/- to Rs.520/-, thus reducing the cost of production of brick resulting in a higher profit for the villagers.
    • There was increase in number of household industries like weaving, pickle and papar, agarbaties, chalk, paper cups, candle making, etc due to easy market access.
    • PMGSY road indirectly benefited the sugarcane industries as farmers due to better transportation facilities started growing sugar cane and sold it in the main markets leading to increase supply of sugar canes.
    • No change in terms of improvement in technology adopted for production was witnessed but the habitants were optimistic of using them in future.
    • There is no sign of development of industry along the roads under study. But construction of the road has paved the way for supply of raw material to the industries located in towns.
    • Weavers in Nadia district have greatly benefited from the upgradation / construction of roads under PMGSY as accessibility to bigger and better markets has increased. Transportation of goods (sarees) during all seasons had expanded the weaving industry. This has led to an increase in employment in the local handloom industry.
    • Increased availability of commercial vehicles has reduced the travel time and benifitted the bidi makers in Purulia district.
    • The availability of all weather roads from the villages to the highways and towns has resulted in a significant impact on the accessibility to the health facilities.
    • Drastic improvement was reported in the frequency of visits of the health workers and their coverage after the connectivity.
    • A clear causal link between the provision of PMGSY roads and increase in awareness on timely preventive health care and faster access to curative facilities was observed.
    • PMGSY roads have ensured a very significant increase in the availability of vehicles for health emergencies.
    • Impact on the health front was also very positive because of the increased access to health services (as per almost 70% of respondents) due to construction of road.
    • Officials of health department visit the villages more frequently.
    • It has become possible to take the patient immediately to the health centre / doctor in the town or to call a doctor in the village.
    • Significant decrease in infant mortality and children due to availability of timely medical help.
    • Overall, mortality has also reduced due to improved health facilities.
    • Improvement in connectivity has facilitated a greater access to PHCs and hospitals.
    • Mortality at child- birth (neo-natal mortality) has declined significantly and in Umaria district the decline has been noticeable (by about 50 percent).
    • Rural areas of Mizoram have been suffering very seriously in terms of accessibility to the crucial necessities of life, like health care. Emergencies due to accidents, serious illness and complications in pregnancies require immediate medical attention.
    • The general health status and awareness regarding preventive care has also increased in the isolated and backward rural areas of Mizoram.
    • Better connectivity has very significantly helped in carrying the patients to the health facilities especially in the rainy season. All the respondents observed that the roads have improved access to the health facilities.
    • Due to the construction of road, no new medical centres have come up in the study villages but the frequency of the health workers visiting the village has increased.
    • More deliveries are taking place in the hospitals and the incidence of delivery with untrained dai's have declined.
    • Incidence of infant and child mortality have declined considerably because of improved access of the villagers to the health care facilities.
    • Due to the construction of road and availability of transportation facilities in the village, people during health emergency cases, are able to access the hospitals located either at the Block or District head quarter.
    • The districts of Rajasthan have a very rough geographical terrain. Prior to the construction of the road, even reaching the nearest health center was a massive task. After the construction of PMGSY road visiting the health centers have become easier. Thus, for a remote district like Jaisalmer, even a slightest impact can be termed as impact of the highest degree.
    • There has been a reduction in mortality rate.
    • Medical doctors are willing to visit remote villages in the post PMGSY roads construction phase.
    • There was marked improvement in access to PHC/dispensaries and chemist shops. The cost and time taken by patients to reach these places has reduced. The travel became comfortable without jerks, etc. The medical services were timely available in emergency.
    • Number of childbirths taking place in the hospitals increased as easy and comfortable mode of transport was available. There was improvement in the health of pregnant women as they visited the doctors regularly for their ANC check up. An overall reduction in neo-natal mortality was reported by the habitants.
    • There was an increase in the general awareness about health amongst the habitants. Access to the health workers/ doctors and local NGOs for preventive and curative health care has also increased.
    • Access to PHC and sub centres has increased. The frequency of visits by health workers to the village has also increased. Construction of All Weather roads has enabled health workers to visit during all seasons.
    • Vehicles are now available in villages to go to hospitals and now more child-birth take place in hospital.
    • Increase in the number of institutional deliveries has not been noteworthy. Home delivery emerges as the preference for childbirth with nine out of ten deliveries taking place at home.
    • Availability of antenatal and postnatal health care has increased along with the choice to avail of the medical facilities in case of obstetric emergencies in home deliveries. Regular visits by health workers, availability of doctors on call and trained midwives had reduced the risk of obstetric emergencies.
    • Marked change in neo natal mortality after the construction/up gradation of the road. As an added benefit of frequent interaction with health workers, the villagers have become more aware of obstetric risks and care for the new born.
    • Polio programme has been running successfully in the villages after the construction of the PMGSY roads, as the vehicles are able to come into the village on the pulse polio days.
    • Beneficiaries reported improvement on the general health scenario in the villages covered under the study due to the construction / upgradation of the road.
    • Road connectivity and greater availability of vehicles have led to increased accessibility to health care facilities. The choice of better health care facilities has widened.
    • Improved transportation system has cut down on travel time, thus, enabling faster accessibility to curative care and better management of medical emergencies.
    • Increase in frequency of visits by health workers to the village during all seasons was reported. This has been possible due to the upgradation / construction of all weather roads.
    • Management of infectious diseases has become easier due to the increased accessibility of health facilities.
    • Increase in the number of institutional deliveries has been noteworthy. Institutional delivery emerged as the preferred place for childbirth.
    • Availability of antenatal and postnatal health care has increased along with the choice of availing medical facilities in case of obstetric emergencies in case of home deliveries. Regular visits by health workers, easy availability of doctors on call and trained midwives had reduced the risk of obstetric emergencies.
    • Beneficiaries indicate reduction in instances of neo-natal mortality after the up-gradation/construction of the roads due to the fact that availability of health care services has increased. As an added benefit of frequent interaction between villagers and health workers, the villagers have become more aware of obstetric risks and essential care for the new born.
    • Significant improvement was visible so far as Polio Programme is concerned. Polio Programme has been running successfully in the villages after the upgradation/ construction of the roads under PMGSY, as the vehicles are now able to come into the village on the pulse polio days.
    • The connectivity of the villages to the road network has resulted in many improvements in education sector of the rural areas.
    • Frequency of the children missing schools during the rainy season has gone down. An increased chance of children going to higher schools in the future was reported.
    • Due to better connectivity, now an inclination to send the girls in higher schools was found among majority of the villagers.
    • Improved access to the educational facilities.
    • The attendance of school teacher has been more regular, which in the pre-construction phase was negligible especially in the monsoon season.
    • More private schools have opened up in the nearby small towns and villages.
    • There has been an increase in the attendance of the students in the schools due to easier, safer and faster access even on rainy days.
    • There is directly a correlation between enrollment and attendance of girl students into the schools viz-a-viz the connectivity provided by the roads.
    • As far as the change in the attendance for colleges is concerned, there does not seem to be much impact in such a short term though in the long term beneficiaries perceived a positive effect if the necessary facilities and access to colleges is provided.
    • Perceptible increase in the number of boys and girls going to middle and high school education due to improved transport facilities due to the PMGSY roads.
    • The parents are not hesitant in sending their daughters to schools in other villages and towns.
    • Rural areas of Mizoram have been suffering very seriously in terms of accessibility to the crucial necessities of life, like health care. Emergencies due to accidents, serious illness and complications in pregnancies require immediate medical attention.
    • The general health status and awareness regarding preventive cure has also been very low in the isolated and backward rural areas of Mizoram.
    • Prior to the construction of the road, the sick were physically carried to health facilities in rainy season. Better connectivity has very significantly helped in solving this problem. All the respondents observed that the roads have improved access to the health facilities.
    • The most important aspect that has emerged out from the study in the post PMGSY road period is that the enrolment rate has increased at all levels in the school and college and the dropout rates have declined.
    • There has also been a considerably increase in enrolment of the girl child.
    • The advent of PMGSY project has opened the gateway to higher education for majority of the children.
    • The attendance of schoolteacher is regularized, which in the pre-construction phase remained negligible especially in the monsoon season.
    • The access to education can be directly linked to the improved educational facilities and opening up of private schools in the villages. However the gap between male and female literacy is still very wide.
    • Better and good connectivity has led to increase in availability of transport facilities for commuting, children to travel on their bicycles and increased in the safety of travel.
    • Attendance in primary schools increased and parents are not required to escort their kids to school.
    • Number of students going to primary, high and plus-two schools have increased. There has been an improvement in number of girls going to school.
    • College enrolment has increased with better transport connectivity.
    • There has not been much impact on accessibility to school. However, some girls are able to go to middle schools in neighbouring areas.
    • The road connectivity has made positive effect on children's education. Due to road connectivity, middle and high schools situated outside the villages are more accessible now.
    • Lesser travel time to school and availability of free time has enabled more students for going to private tuition.
    • There has been a significant change in attitude of parents with regard to sending their daughters to school. They are more confident about sending girls to schools without being escorted.
    • Number of school dropouts during monsoon has reduced considerably. Teachers are more available in schools even during monsoon season.
    • The connectivity has improved the access to the Block and District offices for the villagers and an increase in the frequency of the visits by the officers was observed.
    • The areas here-to-fore inaccessible became easy to reach for administrative and welfare agencies after development of roads.
    • There has been a significant change in the security scenario. The accessibility to the police station is faster now and this has also resulted in increase in frequency of police surveillance rounds in most of these villages.
    • PMGSY roads have made the access to the banks and post offices much easier than before. It was also observed in the study areas that the transactions with banking institutions have also increased.
    • Social services/activities and social interactions have increased due to construction of road in these villages.
    • Service delivery by the Government officials has also improved since now the officials from departments like bank, health, family planning visit more frequently.
    • The services of fire brigade, police etc. are now available.
    • A very significant impact has been on the frequency of visits of the officials. In some of the villages, the enforcement by the law authorities has increased because now the summons from the court is delivered very fast.
    • Also another aspect, which has come out very significantly was the reluctance of the bride's fathers for their marriages to remote unconnected villages.
    • The phenomenon of neon light attraction has drawn villagers to town and entertainments.
    • Parents are not apprehensive in sending their wards to schools located near the towns for higher education because of availability of transport.
    • The gap in educational level of boys and girls is narrowing.
    • Remarkable improvement in maternity care due to easier access to hospitals has reduced mortality of newly born children.
    • Women can travel in buses without depending upon the male companions and this has given them a measure of independence.
    • Those who are going for work like Aanganwadi workers can now reach on time to attend to their work and come back safely.
    • Better connectivity has improved social integration through marriages and other festivals.
    • The connectivity has improved the access to the Block and District offices for the villagers and an increase in the frequency of their visits to these offices was observed.
    • The areas here-to-fore inaccessible became easy to reach for administrative and welfare agencies after development of roads.
    • There has been a significant change in the security scenario.
    • The accessibility to the police station is faster now and this has also resulted in increase in frequency of police surveillance rounds in most of these villages.
    • PMGSY roads have made the access to the banks and post offices much easier than before. It was also observed in the study areas that the transactions with banking institutions have also increased.
    • The study reveals that number of visits made by Government functionaries within a fixed period has increased in post PMGSY road period as compared to pre road period.
    • The increase in average number of visits per village during a year is significant in case of grass root functionaries like health workers/ANM, VLWs and VAWs, whereas it is very marginal in case of top officials like BDO, Collector etc.
    • After the roads are constructed, services like Police, Fireman, Doctor, Relief operations during calamities have improved in the study villages.
    • There is improvement in the extent and nature of Government Programs/Services due to the construction of road under PMGSY.
    • Social interactions and social integrations have increased due to construction of PMGSY roads. Service delivery by the Government staff has also improved since now the officials from departments like Bank, health, and family planning visit more frequently.
    • Parents are no longer reluctant to marry their daughters in remote villages. Relatives find it easier to attend marriage ceremonies due to convenience in travel.
    • Women have started coming into the private domain and actively participating in various social activities. With ample income generating activities emerging from various sections, social-status has increased.
    • Frequency of visit of Government officials increased significantly, because of which there has been improvement in implementation of various development schemes.
    • Reduction in time to respond in emergency cases by Police officials.
    • Improvement in post and telegraph services and commuting to banks has become easier.
    • Not much changes were witnessed in terms of inter village or child marriages. Though people in general in FGD did indicate that this might in future lead to increase in inter-village marriages. The majority of habitants were against child marriages.
    • Institutional monitoring has been increased. The villagers mentioned that more officials now visited their villages and tried to oversee rural development programmes.
    • School teachers and villagers felt that there would be better monitoring of education system now. Villagers foresee that there maybe reduction in teacher absenteeism.
    • Road connectivity has increased the frequency of visits by Government functionaries. This has led to an improvement in the implementation of various development schemes and programmes.
    • Improved Post and Telegraph services and better accessibility to banks.
    • Upgradation/construction of PMGSY roads have improved police patrols around the villages.
    • Construction of PMGSY roads has widened the villagers' network of social interaction and social relations. Villagers are now more inclined towards marriage alliances with far-off habitations connected by PMGSY roads.
    • Provision of all weather roads has created a revolution in the field of transportation. Public and private investments have become more feasible.
    • Villages have large number of public transport vehicles and load carriers available for the services.
    • Increased frequency of travel on two wheelers and bicycles has also been reported in the villages.
    • Trade and commerce have started flourishing and fostered life among the beneficiaries.
    • Access to transport facilities has increased a lot due to construction of road. It was quite difficult to approach the village before the road was built and only means of travel was on foot. Now construction of road has not only facilitated the movement during day / night and even rainy season.
    • Now more people have their vehicles and public vehicles are also available for social and economic activities. The traders are finding it easy to access the nearby markets for purchase of grains and other products. Transportation of wood as raw material has become much easier now.

    PMGSY roads have provided all-weather connectivity, facilitated induction of public and private vehicles and contributed to mobility of villagers to access markets, medical facilities and other avenues of employment available in and around towns and villages.

    Mizoram

    Rajasthan

    Tamil Nadu

    West Bengal

    Summing up, there has been an overall improvement in transport and communication facilities in all the states under study. Beneficiaries in all the states mentioned that there has been an increase in ownership of bicycles, two wheelers especially in the states of Assam, Rajasthan, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu. Beneficiaries also mentioned that there has been an improvement in the public as well as the private transport system in all the states under study.

    Table 3.7 Impact of construction/upgradation of roads on transportation in the selected states

      Assam Himachal Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Mizoram Orissa Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal
    Increased ownership of bicycles/scooters etc. in the village ü - - - ü ü ü ü ü
    Improvement in public transport service ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
    Increase in commercial vehicles or share jeeps ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü

    Table based on perception of respondents
    (ü) Perceived benefit
    (-) No data available

    Impact on Urbanization

    Urbanization is an obvious result of better transport and communication. The effect of urbanization in this study was based on the parameters like increase in land prices, increased sale of land for commercial purpose and conversion of kuchcha houses to pucca houses.

    An immediate direct impact of providing road connectivity is the trend towards urbanization of the area. The study areas have seen some rapid changes and diversities from traditional system to modern system and many of these changes have brought in an urban scenario to the villages.

    Assam

    Himachal Pradesh

    Madhya Pradesh

    Mizoram

    Orissa

    Rajasthan

    Tamil Nadu

    West Bengal

    Thus, summing up, beneficiaries in all the states mentioned that a trend towards urbanization has set in the villages post PMGSY road construction period. The states of Mizoram, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal reported conversion of kuchcha houses to pucca houses. Beneficiaries in all the states mentioned increased land prices adjacent to the PMGSY roads thereby increasing the sale of land for commercial purposes.

    Table 3.8 Impact of construction/upgradation of roads on urbanization in selected states

      Assam Himachal Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Mizoram Orissa Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal
    Increase in land prices ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
    Conversion of kuchcha houses to pucca houses ü ü - ü - ü ü ü ü

    Table based on perception of respondents
    (ü) Perceived benefit
    (-) No data available

    Impact on Poverty Alleviation

    Assam

    Madhya Pradesh

    PMGSY roads have facilitated mobility to markets and access to markets have opened up avenues of employment both on-farm and off-farm. The replies from the respondents (250 households) show that average income has recorded increase in the past one year by 7.7 percent to 10.6 percent.

    Tamil Nadu

    West Bengal

    Table 3.9 Impact of construction/upgradation of roads on poverty alleviation in the selected states

      Assam Himachal Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Mizoram Orissa Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal
    Increase in household income ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü

    Table based on perception of respondents
    (ü) Perceived benefit

      • The connectivity by all weather roads has come as blessings to the rural areas that have been deprived of benefits of vehicular transport till now.
      • Public and private investments in the field of transport services have become more feasible in the sector.
      • The PMGSY project has given rise to a much needed transport system. The All Weather roads have offered safer, smoother and quicker mobility round the year, without any resistance.
      • Improved transport facilities have reduced the travel time and the cost of travel.
      • Few of the beneficiaries are running their own Jeep and Jaguar.
      • The differences in the consumption of diesel can be seen and consequently there is the reduction in freight charges.
      • Goods can be easily transported to the market without any obstacle.
      • Public/Private buses have started plying. However, in some habitations the frequency of the service is very less. In Thanjavore district the bus service has not yet started and the habitants were demanding the start of the bus services.
      • Number of taxis, autos, etc had increased and fares charged by them have reduced. Nowadays, vehicles come to the habitations on making a request through phones.
      • There has been an increase in ownership of bicycles tremendously in the habitations. In fact, some of the habitants have even bought cars and motorcycles/scooters.
      • Use of pneumatic tyres in bullock-carts has significantly increased.
      • Increase in the number of transport facilities, especially commercial vehicles and shared jeeps plying on the PMGSY roads were observed to be the most noticeable change. The construction all weather PMGSY roads has lead to the availability commercial vehicles are available during all seasons.
      • Road connectivity has resulted in increased ownership of bicycles and scooters in all the habitations.
      • Demand of land for commercial purposes has increased in some villages.
      • The consumption patterns of the villagers have also suitably shifted to the choice of more attractive and better products.
      • Most of the traditional houses are converting into concrete structures.
      • There is an upward swing in the demand for the vehicles like scooters, mobikes, cars, tractors, etc.
      • The cost of the land has certainly increased and the cost of the land near the roads has increased in value significantly. The cost of agriculture land near the road in certain areas has been valued from almost Rs 25000/- to almost 35000/-40000/- per kanal. (1hectare =12 kanals).
      • The PMGSY roads have not yet caused urbanization of villages along the road in the strict sense of the term. Only, in Shahpur village located along Kalyanpur- Shahpur road in District Umaria, a Shahdol town inhabitant has purchased land for starting some business / enterprise.
      • However, different types of rural-urban integration as told by respondents are taking place due to improved connectivity.
      • Better transport and incidental communication facilities have led to market integration for village products and vice versa.
      • Small vendors from towns now find it easier to visit villages and sell their wares to villagers. Even, peddlers of locally brewed alcoholic beverages have started visiting male villagers at some discrete places for selling their products.
      • The study areas have seen some rapid changes and diversities from traditional system to modern system and many of these changes have brought an urban scenario to the villages.
      • Demand of land for commercial purposes has increased in some villages.
      • The consumption patterns of the villagers have also suitably shifted to the choice of more attractive and better products.
      • The availability of labourers and raw material is easy now and thus construction of large number of concrete houses has taken place post PMGSY road construction.
      • Due to the construction of road and consequently increasing connectivity to the villages located close to the roads, the cost of land price has gone up quite appreciably and secondly many small/petty shops like pan and tea have come up on the road side.
      • It was also observed that many outsiders have purchased land after the road construction with a view to set up industries.
      • Transport facilities have increased due to the construction of roads enhancing the access to such villages. This includes increase in the number and frequency of buses plying to the village; availability of more number of light commercial vehicles helping people to carry their products to the market and also going to hospitals during the emergencies at odd hours.
      • Not much impact was noticed with respect to urbanization of the area. However, few of the kuchcha houses have now converted into concrete structures.
      • At some places there is sharp rise in the price of land adjoining motorable road. This has been observed in Alwar district due to rapid industrialization of the area.
      • Easier availability raw materials as now brick-klins, cement and masonry services are more accessible for construction of houses.
      • Land prices have increased tremendously
      • Increase in sale of land for commercial uses
      • Kuchcha houses are being converted to pucca houses
      • Sudden increase in land prices in all the places adjacent to the new connectivity was observed. Villagers have started selling the land at comparatively high prices to outside people.
      • Construction of PMGSY roads have facilitated petty trade along the road.
      • After the upgradation of the roads, there have been a shift in the type of houses constructed i.e. from kuchcha to semi pucca or fully pucca houses since accessibility to and transportation of raw materials have become easier.
      • It was observed that reduction in transport and transaction costs triggered by the construction of rural roads have increased the supply of agricultural products into the markets and effective price paid to the farmers, which has resulted in substantial increase in their agricultural income.
      • Increased income generation opportunities have also substituted agricultural self-employment income for other income sources that had greater profitability with better connectivity.
      • In case of Barpeta and Nagaon districts, the benefited population has significantly increased their self-employment income by producing handicrafts, selling vegetables in the markets etc.
      • In Morigaon district, a huge percentage of respondents reported an increased participation in agricultural and non-agricultural labour markets.
      • Road rehabilitation has allowed beneficiaries to get an increase ranging between Rs. 4000 to Rs. 8000 in their annual income. This increase is statistically significant and amounts to almost 25% of the respondent households' average income. The increased income enhanced non-agricultural wage activities and greater access to public infrastructure substantially justifying that providing better connectivity can result into a very successful poverty alleviation strategy.
      • An indirect impact of the PMGSY road has been the rise in income level of the habitants.
      • Better connectivity has resulted in an increase in on-farm and off-farm employment and has opened lot of avenues for self-employment.
      • Due to all this there has been an improvement in the period of employment and wage rate as people are able to go to main areas for employment where per day wage rates are high. In view of above, majority of habitants during the FGDs indicated an increase in their household-income, which was also supported by the PRIs.
      • The spin off benefit of PMGSY roads has been on the income level of the habitants benefiting from these roads. The roads, directly or indirectly have provided opportunities for on farm and off -farm employment as well as self-employment.
      • Improved road connectivity has resulted in better linkages with markets resulting in an expansion of agricultural and allied trade, local industries and petty trade.
      • This has increased profit and savings and favorably affected the household income levels.
      • With the improvement in on-farm and non-farm employment opportunities, beneficiaries in all the states reported increase in their average household income. Thus, better connectivity can result into a very successful poverty alleviation strategy.
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